The article provides a legal analysis of climate governance in the countries of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), which combine high climate vulnerability with limited institutional and regulatory capacity. The relevance of the topic is due to the aggravation of water conflicts in the region, the growth of climate risks and the need to adapt climate governance systems to the requirements of the Paris Agreement and the Sustainable Development Goals. low level of adoption of environmentally friendly technologies, unstable legal design of environmental, social and governance (ESG) standards, and weak coordination between sectoral policies. Special attention is paid to the European vector of cooperation as a source of institutional, financial and legal support for MENA countries in the implementation of climate commitments. In particular, the EU initiatives within the framework of the Green Deal, the development of the EU-MENA regional partnership, the spread of national climate and energy strategies (NECPs), as well as the introduction of market and non-market mechanisms for reducing emissions were considered. The purpose of the study is to identify regulatory barriers in the climate policy of the MENA countries and formulate recommendations to ensure effective legal governance of climate and water risks in the region. As a result, it was found that only a combination of international support, codification of domestic commitments, ESG integration, and institutional capacity building can ensure the sustainability of climate transformation. The conclusions substantiate the need for interagency coordination, transparency of reporting, regional dialogue on water resources and regulatory harmonization with EU law as prerequisites for achieving climate justice.

Authored books

1. Clarke R, Water: The international crisis (Earthscan 1991).

2. Santos F dos, Innovation in Africa: Levelling the playing field to promote technology transfer (Oxford University Press 2024) 99–100. Edited books

3. Beyond Scarcity: Water Security in the Middle East and North Africa. MENA Development Report (World Bank 2018) (accessed 27.07.2025).

4. Dorte V (ed), Adaptation to a Changing Climate in the Arab Countries: A Case for Adaptation Governance and Leadership in Building Climate Resilience. MENA development report (World Bank 2022) (accessed 27.07.2025).

5. Feruglio A, Tang A, ‘Embracing complexity: Water and climate policy in the Middle East and North Africa’, O Quirico, W Baber (eds), Implementing climate change policy: Designing and Deploying Net Zero Carbon Governance (Cambridge University Press 2024) 130–146.

6. Olawuyi D (ed), Climate Change Law and Policy in the Middle East and North Africa Region (Routledge 2022).

7. Salman S M A, ‘Agreement on the Declaration of Principles on the GERD: Levelling the Nile Basin playing field’, in Z Yihdego, A Rieu-Clarke, A E Cascão (eds), The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam and the Nile Basin: Implications for Transboundary Water Cooperation (Taylor & Francis 2017) 65–80.

Journal articles

8. Abu-Baker A, ‘Water-deprived’ [2017] 25 Sur – International Journal on Human Rights 37– 55.

9. Chen O, Abdelhalim A, Liu Y, Rico-Ramirez M, Han D, ‘Climate Change Adaptations for Food Security in Vulnerable Areas of the Egyptian Nile – For Tackling the Overlooked Nexus Hazards of Hydrological Extremes and Waste Pollutions’ [2021] 13(4) Water 412 https://doi. org/10.3390/w13040412.

10. Demerew K, ‘From Red Sea to the Nile: water, power, and politics in Northeast Africa’ [2021] 42(12) Third World Quarterly 2883–2901 https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2021.1977622.

11. Elshirbiny H, Abrahamse W, ‘Public risk perception of climate change in Egypt: a mixed methods study of predictors and implications’ [2020] 10(3) Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences 242–254.

12. Gebresenbet F, Wondemagegnehu D Y, ‘New Dimensions in the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam Negotiations: Ontological Security in Egypt and Ethiopia’ [2021] 14(1) African Security 80–106 https://doi.org/10.1080/19392206.2021.1905921

13. Gleick P, ‘Water and conflict: Fresh water resources and international security’ [1993] 18(1) International Security 79–112.

14. Gupta J, ‘The Watercourses Convention, Hydro-hegemony and Transboundary Water Issues’ [2016] 51(3) The International Spectator 118–131 https://doi.org/10.1080/03932729.2016.11 98558.

15. Mason M, Zeitoun M, El Sheikh R, ‘Conflict and social vulnerability to climate change: Lessons from Gaza’ [2011] 3(4) Climate and Development 285–297 https://doi.org/10.1080/ 17565529.2011.618386.

16. Medvedieva M, Matiushyna O, ‘The European Emissions Trading Schemes (EU ETS): Some Legal Perspectives of Market-Based Mechanisms’ [2024] 158(1) Actual Problems of International Relations 43–51 https://doi.org/10.17721/apmv.2024.158.1.43-51

17. Nasr H, Neef A, ‘Ethiopia’s Challenge to Egyptian Hegemony in the Nile River Basin: The Case of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam’ [2016] 21(4) Geopolitics 969–989 https://doi. org/10.1080/14650045.2016.1209740.

18. Salem H S, Yihdego Z, Muhammed H H, ‘The status of freshwater and reused treated wastewater for agricultural irrigation in the Occupied Palestinian Territories’ [2021] 19(1) Journal of Water and Health 120–158.

19. Salman S M A, ‘The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam: the road to the declaration of principles and the Khartoum document’ [2016] 41(4) Water International 512–527 https:// doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2016.1170374.

20. Sarsak R, Almasri M N, ‘Health of Palestinians, water and coastal aquifer in Gaza – Authors’ reply’ [2014] 383(9924) Lancet 1207–1208 doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60600-0.

21. Selby J, ‘Dressing up domination as ‘cooperation’: the case of Israeli-Palestinian water relations’ [2003] 29(1) Review of International Studies 121–138 doi:10.1017/S026021050300007X

22. Swain A, ‘Challenges for water sharing in the Nile basin: changing geo-politics and changing climate’ [2011] 56(4) Hydrological Sciences Journal 687–702 https://doi.org/10.1080/026266 67.2011.577037

23. Tawfik R, ‘Revisiting hydro-hegemony from a benefit-sharing perspective: The case of the grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam’ [2015] 5 Discussion Paper (German Development Institute) (accessed 27.07.2025).

24. Yihdego Z, Rieu-Clarke A, Cascão A E, ‘How has the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam changed the legal, political, economic and scientific dynamics in the Nile Basin?’ [2016] 41(4) Water International 503–511 https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2016.1209008.

Newspaper articles

25. Butmeh A, ‘Palestine is a climate justice issue’ (Al Jazeera 28 Nov 2019) (accessed 27.07.2025).

26. Disabled South Sudanese soldiers stage protest over unpaid salaries (Sudan Tribune 25 March 2014) (accessed 27.07.2025).

27. Melhem A, ‘New chapter begins in Israel–Palestine water dispute’ (Al-Monitor, June 9, 2017) (accessed 27.07.2025).

28. Najib M, ‘Palestine runs dry: “Our water they steal and sell to us”’ (Al Jazeera 15 Jul 2021) (accessed 27.07.2025).

Websites

29. Climate Oppression: A Major Tool to Establish and Maintain Israel’s Apartheid Regime over the Palestinian People and Their Lands: Submission to the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) Pursuant to Human Rights Council Resolution 47/24 “Human Rights and Climate Change” (November 2021, Al-Haq) (accessed 27.02.2025).

30. Moving from start-up to scale-up on ESG: The 2023 Middle East report (PwC, 2023) (accessed 27.07.2025).